Conflict is the gadfly of thought. It stirs us to observation
and memory. It instigates invention. It shocks us out of sheep-like
passivity, and sets us at noting and contriving…conflict
is a sine qua non of reflection and ingenuity.
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—John Dewey |
Ruggiero (1988) argues that the explicit teaching of higher-level
reasoning and critical thinking does not depend on what is taught,
but rather on how it is taught. He states: “The only significant
change that is required is a change in teaching methodology.”
Very often, teachers lecture and students passively learn in the
traditional classroom; hence students’ academic disagreement
is often suppressed. Without realising it, teachers miss out on
valuable opportunities to capture their own audience and opportunities
to enhance students’ learning (Johnson and Johnson, 1989).
Academic controversy is the conflict that arises in the classroom
when involved group members have different information, perceptions,
opinions, reasoning, processes, theories, and conclusions, and they
must reach agreement. It is a very important tool to promote interaction
between students (Johnson and Johnson, 1989; Bigge and Shermis,
1991). When managed constructively, academic controversy promotes
uncertainty about the correctness of one’s views, which leads
to active search for more information, and ultimately the reconceptualisation
of one’s knowledge and conclusion. Consequently, greater mastery
and retention of material being discussed can be achieved. Individuals
working alone in competitive and individualistic situations do not
have the opportunity for such a process (Johnson and Johnson, 1995).
The hypothesis that intellectual challenge through academic controversy
promotes higher-level reasoning, critical thinking, and metacognitive
thought is derived from a number of premises (Johnson et al., 1995):
- When individuals are presented with a problem or decision, they
have an initial conclusion based on categorising and organising
incomplete information, their limited experiences, and their specific
perspective.
- When individuals present their conclusion and its rationale
to others, they engage in cognitive rehearsal, deepen their understanding
of their position, and discover higher-level reasoning strategies.
- Individuals are confronted by other people with different conclusions
based on other people’s information, experiences, and perspectives.
- Individuals become uncertain as to the correctness of their
views. A state of conceptual conflict or disequilibrium is aroused.
- Uncertainty, conceptual conflict, and disequilibrium motivate
an active search for more information, new experiences, and a
more adequate cognitive perspective and reasoning process in hopes
of resolving the uncertainty (epistemic curiosity). Divergent
attention and thought are stimulated.
- By adapting their cognitive perspective and reasoning through
understanding and accommodating the perspective and reasoning
of others, a new, reconceptualised, and reorganised conclusion
is derived. Novel solutions and decisions are detected which are
usually qualitatively better.
When teachers structure controversies within cooperative learning
groups, students are required to (1) research and prepare a position;
(2) advocate a position; analyse, critically evaluate, and rebut
information; (3) reason deductively and inductively; (4) take the
perspective of others; and (5) synthesise and integrate information
into factual and judgmental conclusions that are summarised into
a joint position to which all sides can agree.
According to Johnson et al. (1995), cooperation, controversy, cognition,
and metacognition are all intimately related. Cooperative learning
provides the context within which cognition and metacognition best
take place. They are stimulated by the interpersonal exchange within
cooperative learning groups. To ensure that higher-level reasoning,
critical thinking and metacognition take place, however, students
need the intellectual challenge resulting from conflict among ideas
and conclusions, that is, controversy.
Further Reading
Bigge, M.L. & Shermis, S.S. (1991). Learning
Theories For Teachers (5th ed.). New York: Harper
Collins.
Johnson, D.W. & Johnson, R.T. (1989). Cooperation
and Competition: Theory and Research. Edina, MN: Interaction
Book Co.
Johnson, D.W.; Johnson, R.T.; & Smith, K.A. (1995).
Active Learning: Cooperation in the College Classroom.
Edina, MN: Interaction Book Co.
Ruggiero, V. (1988). Teaching Thinking
Across the Curriculum. New York: Harper & Row.
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